Ваенная гісторыя беларускіх земляў (да канца XII ст.)
Том. 2
Ягор Новікаў
Выдавец: Логвінаў
Памер: 300с.
Мінск 2008
After a magnificent 11th century, 12th century became a subperiod of constant internal wars. Both the Duchy of Poiack and Kyivan Rus’ disintegrated into a number of statelets when the dukes of the ruling dynasties had established their hereditary rights on certain lands. Having secured their rear, Ruthenian dukes were quick to go to war with each other. They tried either to gain power and wealth at the expense of each other or take control
over the capital city of the country (respectively Poiack or Kyiv) to gain the formal supremacy over the rest. Their vast manors, which by 12"’ century they had managed to make their private property, delivered them plenty of resources for their military activities. The end result was the state of almost endless war.
The Duchy of Poiack was the one to lose most from such a state of affairs. After the death of Usiaslau in 1101 it broke up into a number of independent duchies, Poiack and Miensk being the most important of them. After a period of rapprochement with Kyiv in late 1 l,h — early 12th centuries the Dukes of Poiack were unfortunate to take a line of confrontation with Kyiv in 1120s. That came in the time when Kyivan Rus' enjoyed its last blaze of glory under Uladzimir Manamach (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (1125-1132), both skillful politicians and gifted generals. When Davyd of Poiack (?—1128) refused to render military assistance to Mstislav against Kumansin 1127, the Kyivan duke responded by occupying Poiack twice in 1128 and 1130 and sending some members of the ruling Poiack dynasty to exile in Byzantium. In the meantime Miensk fared little better. Hleb of Miensk (1101-1119), the most active of all Po’ack dukes, had conquered Orsa (Orsha) and Kopys before 1104 and seized and plundered Sluck (Slutsk) in 1116. He fought off the coalition of the dukes of Kyiv, Chernihiv and Pereyaslavl in 1104 but in 1117 had to capitulate to Uladzimir Manamach and became his vassal. After one more clash in 1119 he was captured by Manamach and died in Kyiv prison.
Po3ack and Miensk separately restored their independence in 1130s but their revival was interrupted by a war between them in 1151-1167. Hleb’sson RascisJad (Rostislav, 1135-1161) became the Duke of Poiack in 1151 dethroning Rahvalod (Rogvolod, 11441151, 1158-1162), only to be expelled by the supporters of the latter in 1158. RascislaQ’s brother Valadar (Volodar, 1162—?) called up his Lithuanian vassals and badly defeated Poiack troops at Haradziec in 1162 and in 1167 at Dzvina River briefly ascending the Poiack throne. Yet his limited resources could not match his military skills. In the same year he was defeated by the troops of the Duchy of Smalensk, who interfered in the war on the side of Poiack, and had to return to Miensk. As a result of this «friendly» help Poiack lost some of its eastern territories to Smalensk and came under the protectorate of the latter. Poiack regained its independence yet again in 1180 and in a series of wars re
conquered Druck (Drutsk) and Viciebsk (Vitebsk) from Smalensk. Yet by that time Polack hegemony over Lithuania was over and German crusaders supported by Holy See set their sights on Livonia. Po’ack approached 13,h century significantly weakened and facing a severe internal crisis.
The military history of Smalensk in 12"’ century was much more trouble-free than that of Po3ack. While Polack for centuries had to fight for its independence tooth and nail, Smalensk quietly gained it in 1132 after the death of Mstislav of Kyiv when the political unity of Kyivan Rus’ disappeared in all but name. Duke Rascislau (Rostislav, 1125-1167), a son of Mstislav, defined the foreign policy of Smalensk as selective engagement. He preferred to take care of his domestic affairs, interfering in the struggle for Kyiv only when it fitted his agenda, e.g. in 1149, 1151 and 1154. Otherwise he took advantage of others’ feuds to carve large pieces out of the territories of Chernihiv in 1127 and Polack in 1165. Rascislau finally became the Duke of Kyiv in 1159 and before his death in 1167 solidified the positions of his family in Rus’ by appointing his sons to govern Ovruch, Vyshgorod and Belgorod, strategically the most important towns around Kyiv.
Rascislau’s sons continued his policy of selective engagement. In 1169 they joined a grand coalition of Ruthenian dukes headed by Andrey of Suzdal against Kyiv and took part in seizing and plundering the city. On the opposite, when the situation changed, they successfully defended Vyshgorod against Andrey in 1173 and later regained Kyiv. Facing a threat from Vsevolod of Chernihiv in 1176 Rascislaii’son Raman (Roman) took it easy and left Kyiv for Smalensk. He perfectly knew that with the military presence of his brothers in Ovruch, Vyshgorod and Belgorod he still had a lot of influence in Kyivan affairs.
The situation somewhat deteriorated in 1180 when Raman died and was succeeded by his brother Davyd (1180-1197). Inflexible and authoritarian Davyd had to cope with the mutinies in his field army in 1185 and in Smalensk in 1186. He dragged his duchy into a number of unnecessary conflicts with Polack and Chernihiv that resulted in a decisive defeat of his army by united Polack and Chernihiv troops at Viciebsk in 1196. Although by the moment of his death one year later Smalensk still kept most of its political and military power, one can argue that Davyd left Smalensk to his successors in a worse shape than he had found it himself.
Of all Ruthenian duchies Тіігай was the last to gain its independence from the central Kyivan government. The first attempt headed by one of Uladzimir Manamach’s sons Viacaslad (Viacheslav) in 1146 was crushed by his nephew Iziaslav of Kyiv. What turned out to be too difficult fora mild and simple-hearted Viacaslau, was feasible for a brave and energetic Jury Jarasiavic (Yury Yaroslavich, a grandson of Sviatapofk Kyiv and Turati and therefore a heir apparent ofTurau throne. In 1158 he turned up in town and was overwhelmingly welcome by the local community as a legitimate ruler. He immediately had to withstand a tenweek long siege by a large coalition of Ruthenian duchies. The length of the siege was a record for early mediaeval Rus’. Jury again successfully defended Turau in 1160. In 1162 RascislaCi of Smalensk, who by that time had also become the Duke of Kyiv, finally recognized de facto independence ofTurau and concluded peace with Jury. Jury and his successors were wise enough not to waste the results of this major diplomatic victory. They cautiously stayed out of major conflicts but were ready to supply necessary military aid to their stronger neighbours whenever those needed it. Even after the break-up of the Duchy ofTurau into separate statelets that happened between 1167 and 1174 their rulers managed to keep their relations non-hostile. Turau land would never become a major international force to be reckoned with yet it stayed in peace and relative security amid intestine wars.
For the most part of 12th century Lithuanians and Yatvingians stayed in the shadow of Rus'. Lithuania, being a true vassal of Polack, survived a punitive expedition of Kyivan troops in 1131 immediately following the fall of Polack. Lithuanians even managed to defeat one of Kyivan detachments on its way back. In 1162 Lithuanians fought under the banners of Miensk duke Valadar and in 1180 participated in the Druck expedition of Po3ack dukes. Yatvingians clashed with Jaraslau (Yaroslav), the Duke of Volyn’ in 1112 and 1113.
At the same time political and social evolution of Lithuanian and Yatvingian societies led to the emergence of their statehood. Earlier chiefdoms or lands finally gave way to states, which had certain territory and were ruled by dukes in accordance with the customary law. If an increased military activity is any indication of early statehood, as it was the case with the Norsemen, the emergence of Yatvingian statehood could be dated by 1140s when Polish and Ruthenian dukes had to protect Mazovia from
Yatvingian threat. Yatvingian states enjoyed independence right from the outset while Lithuanians had to wait. They broke free from the Dukes of Polack and Miensk in early 1180s. The raid on Pskov in 1183 was the first independent military action of Lithuanian dukes. The raid on Livonia followed in 1184—1185. Then it was Potack’s turn. In 1185 Lithuanians defeated Potack army and killed duke IziaslaG (Iziaslav) in the battle. Yet their success was short-lived. In 1191 the Duke of Potack returned favour by raiding Lithuania. Yatvingians were defeated in 1192 by Polish king Bolestaw and in 1196 by Volynian duke Raman (Roman).
In view of their limited resources Lithuanians had to abandon their all-out offensive on Rus' and instead switch to the policy of making alliances with selected Ruthenian duchies. Potack, as their former senior, was logically the first choice. In 1198 Lithuanians together with Potack troops plundered Velikiye Luki, which belonged to Novgorod land. Livonian Rhymed Chronicle tells about a joint operation of Lithuanians and Potack troops against Germans at Kokenhusen in Livonia circa 1200, where both sides suffered heavy losses. Political and military cooperation between Rus’ and Lithuania paved way for the subsequent formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Just as the wars of 9th— lllh centuries contributed to the promotion of capable and popular Ruthenian rulers, the wars of 12lh century led to the decline of their epigones and a general political crisis in Rus’. Having secured their hereditary rights, Ruthenian dukes were eager to win more at the expense of each other and therefore easily went to war every now and then. Many clashes were caused by dynastic reasons. By 12,h century the ruling dynasties of Rus’ were connected by numerous family ties and divided into several blocks in accordance with those. A conflict around a small peripheral town could easily ignite all Ruthenian duchies through these connections. These wars benefited dukes and their closest environment but the rest of the society was not so happy. While dukes where busy fighting, a system of civil selfgovernment emerged behind their backs in major Ruthenian cities. Most often it was headed by civil aristocracy. Popular assemblies (vieca or veche) wanted to restrain the authoritarian tendencies of dukes and their belligerence. The standoffs between the duke and the assembly caused major rebellions often directed against unnecessary military campaigns. E.g. in 1158 the residents of Polack
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